DEVELOPMENT OF PALM FRUIT FIBRE REINFORCED COMPOSITE FOR CAR BUMPER

OBJECTIVES:

The objective of this research work is to develop new and improved material from farm waste that is necessary for Local Content addition in Automotive industry.

INTRODUCTION:

Most current researches are geared towards the engineering of Composites materials to achieve properties and characteristics that are better and more desirable than the primary metal, polymer or ceramics. These properties promote the use of Composite materials for various engineering applications.  Palm is native and widely cultivated in this environment  and palm chaff  is a waste material that could be developed as fibre  component  of  composites that could have resourceful application in the automobile industry especially in the production of  automobile bumper. It is hoped that the research will facilitate the current government Local Content initiatives and Automotive Policy. 

METHODOLOGY:

       Palm fibre preparation.

  Production of the palm fibre reinforced composite.

        Mechanical test.

       Simulation using CAD.

       Fabrication of the car bumper.

ENVISAGED CONTRIBUTION TO KNOWLEDGE:

        i.            This research will help to discover new and improved material that could be used for production Car Bumper.

      ii.            The research will help discover the industrial use of Palm chaff which is regarded as Farm waste.

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GRAPHENE A MIRACLE MATERIAL

BY ENGR . AGBADUA SEGUN

                                                     ABSTRACT

The paper tends to look at the origin , production and relevance of Graphene to the material world.

                                                                      INTRODUCTION

Graphene is a flat monolayer of carbon atoms tightly packed into a two-dimensional (2D) honeycomb lattice, and is a basic building block for graphitic materials of all other dimensionalities. Graphene is an allotrope of carbon, whose structure is one-atom-thick planar sheets of sp²-bonded carbon atoms that are densely packed in a honeycomb crystal lattice.

The carbon-carbon bond length in graphene is about 0.142 nanometers. Graphene sheets stack to form graphite with an interplanar spacing of 0.335 nm, which means that a stack of 3 million sheets would be only one millimeter thick. Graphene is the basic structural element of some carbon allotropes including graphite, charcoal, carbon nanotubes and fullerenes. It can also be considered as an indefinitely large aromatic molecule, the limiting case of the family of flat polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.

 METHODS OF PRODUCING OF GRAPHENE

Growth from metal-carbon melts

Pyrolysis of sodium ethoxide

Sugar

Epitaxial growth on metal substrates

Graphite oxide reduction

Epitaxial growth on silicon carbide

Graphite oxide Reduction

Graphite oxide exfoliation can be achieved by rapid heating and yields highly dispersed carbon powder with few percents of graphene flakes. Reduction of graphite oxide monolayer films

 Growth from metal-carbon melts

The general idea in this process is to dissolve carbon atoms inside a transition metal melt at a certain temperature, and then allowing the dissolved carbon to precipitate out at lower temperatures as single layer graphene.

Epitaxial growth on silicon carbide

 This process produces epitaxial graphene with dimensions dependent upon the size of the SiC substrate (wafer). The face of the SiC used for graphene formation, silicon- or carbon-terminated, highly influences the thickness, mobility and carrier density of the graphene.

From sugar

Sucrose is turned quickly and easily into graphene with the help of  copper or nickel substrate and  subjected to 800 °C under low pressure with exposure to argon and hydrogen gas.

graphene is an isolated atomic plane of graphite. Graphene has been known since the invention of X-ray crystallography. Graphene planes become even better separated in intercalated graphite compounds. Graphene films were produced by chemical vapor deposition and used as anodes for application in photovoltaic devices. Tiny fragments of graphene sheets are produced whenever graphite is abraded, such as when drawing a line with a pencil

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

Graphene appears to be one of the strongest materials ever tested. Measurements have shown that it  has a breaking strength 200 times greater than steel, with a tensile strength of 130GPa (19,000,000 psi).^[116] However, the process of separating it from graphite, where it occurs naturally. Not only is it lighter, stronger, harder and more flexible than steel, it is also a recyclable and sustainably manufacturable product that is eco-friendly and cost effective in its use.

aerospace companies such as Boeing have already started to replace metals with carbon fibres and carbon-based materials, and graphene paper with its incomparable mechanical properties would be the next material for them to explore.

Thermal properties

The ballistic thermal conductance of graphene is isotropic.^[111] The Potential for this high conductivity can be seen by considering graphite, a 3D version of graphene that has basal plane thermal conductivity of over a 1000 Wm⁻¹K⁻¹ (comparable to diamond). In graphite, the c-axis (out of plane) thermal conductivity is over a factor of ~100 smaller due to the weak binding forces between basal planes as well as the larger lattice spacing

Integrated circuits

Graphene has the ideal properties to be an excellent component of integrated circuits. Graphene has a high carrier mobility, as well as low noise, allowing it to be used as the channel in a FET. The issue is that single sheets of graphene are hard to produce, and even harder to make on top of an appropriate substrate, graphene was epitaxially grown on SiC in a quantity and with quality suitable for mass production of integrated circuits. The circuit handled frequencies up to 10 GHz, and its performance was unaffected by temperatures up to 127C

Electrochromic devices

Graphene Oxide can be reversibly reduced and oxidized using electrical stimulus. Controlled reduction and oxidation in two-terminal devices containing multilayer graphene oxide films are shown to result in switching between partially reduced graphene oxide and graphene, a process which modifies the electronic and optical properties

Transparent conducting electrodes

Graphene's high electrical conductivity and high optical transparency make it a candidate for transparent conducting electrodes, required for such applications as touchscreens, liquid crystal displays

Organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs) with graphene anodes have also been demonstrated. The electronic and optical performance of devices based on graphene are shown to be similar to devices made with indium-tin-oxide.

Graphene biodevices

Graphene's modifiable chemistry, large surface area, atomic thickness and molecularly-gatable structure make antibody-functionalized graphene sheets excellent candidates for mammalian and microbial detection and diagnosis devices.

The most ambitious biological application of graphene is for rapid, inexpensive electronic DNA sequencing. Integration of graphene (thickness of 0.34 nm) layers as nanoelectrodes into a nanopore can solve one of the bottleneck issues of nanopore-based single-molecule DNA sequencing

Anti-bacterial

The Chinese Academy of Sciences has found that sheets of graphene oxide are highly effective at killing bacteria such as Escherichia coli. This means graphene could be useful in applications such as hygiene products or packaging that will help keep food fresh for longer

CONCLUSION

Graphene has taken over from the silicon and germanium etc , that are doping materials.

It has shown how invaluable carbon is to the Engineering world.

 

 

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HEAT TREATMENT OF STEEL

ABSTRACT

•      

This paper is aimed at enumerating the importance of heat treatment and techniques and determination of hardness of a test piece of component.

INTRODUCTION

•       Heat treatment is an operation or combination of operations involving heating and cooling timed and applied to a metal or alloy in the solid state in a way that will produce desired properties. The physical and mechanical properties of metal can be altered so much by heat treatment.

    Essentially, a heat treatment cycle consists of three main stages:

•       Heating the steel uniformly to some predetermined temperature.

•       Holding at an appropriate temperature for the required time.

•       Cooling the material at a rate which will produce in it the desired type of structure.

                                                                                                      

SOME IMPORTANT TERMS

•       Annealing: the steady heating of a meta at a certain temperature above the recrystallization phase followed by a gradual cooling process.

•       Austenite phase: the phase at which solid steel recrystallizes and has a face centered cubic crystal structure. Austenite steel holds a greater amount of dissolved carbon and exhibits increased formability.

 

 

•       Bainite: A combination of ferrite and cementite in ferrous metals that is harder than pearlite. Bainite contains needle like grain structures, and it requires an initial rapid cooling followed by gradual cooling.

•       Body centered cubic: the crystal structure that contains an atom in the center and one atom in each corner of a cube. Ferrite has a BCC crystal structure.

 

 

•       Body centered tetragonal: a body centered cubic crystal structure that has been distorted by the presence of extra atoms of carbon. Martensite has a BCT crystal structure.

•       Cementite: A compound of iron and carbon that is very hard and brittle. The presence of cementite hardens steel.

 

ANNEALING

 

    Annealing is one of the most important heat treating operation applied to steel.

    It is employed to:

•       Obtain a homogeneous structure

•       Reduce hardness.

•       Remove residual stresses.

•       Improve toughness.

•       Restore ductility.

•       Reduce segregation.

•       Alter the mechanical, electrical or magnetic properties of the material.

•       Refine grain sizes.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             

Types of heat treatment operations

 

•       Full annealing:

    This process consists in heating the steel to the proper temperature and then cooling slowly through the transformation range, preferably in the furnace or in any good heat insulating material.

•       Process annealing:

    This heat treatment is used in the sheet and wire industries. Cold working often severely strain hardened a metal and to restore its ductility either for service or permit further prolong processing without danger of fracture,  process annealing is used.

•       Stress relieve annealing:

    This process, sometimes called subcritical annealing is useful in removing residual stresses due to heavy machining or other cold working processes. Parts are heated below A1, lower critical point, 550-650 degree and then held for a period of time and cool slowly. The temperature varies with the condition of the component.

 

 

•       Spheroidization:

    This method is employed when high carbon steel is to be prepared for machining or forming. The aim is to produce a structure in which all commentates is in the form of well dispersed spheroid or globules.

•       Hardening:

    Under slow and moderate cooling rates, the carbon atoms are able to diffuse out of the austenite structure. The iron atoms then move slightly to become BCC. This gamma to alpha transformation takes place by a process of nucleation and growth is time dependent.

    Hardening of steel can either be by

•       Quench hardening

•       Case hardening.

•       Quench hardening:

    Steel hardening consists of two principal operations, i.e. heating and quenching. Work pieces should be heated to prescribe temp. gradually and uniformly to avoid internal stresses development and excessive slow heating should not be allowed to avoid decarburisation surface of the steel.

•       Case hardening:

    This involves the packing the low carbon iron within a substance high in carbon, then heating this pack to encourage carbon migration into the surface of the iron. This forms a thin surface layer of high carbon steel, with the carbon content gradually decreasing deeper from the surface.

    The resulting product combines much of the toughness of low carbon steel with the hardness and wear resistance of the outer high carbon steel.

•       Tempering:

    Martensite, although very hard, may also be brittle and hardened steel requires a further heat treatment, known as tempering, before it can be put into service.

    When a martensitic structure is heated it becomes possible for the carbon trapped in the supersaturate solid solution to diffuse through the lattice and precipitate from the solution in the form of particles of carbide.

•       Austempering:

    In this process, the steel is heated to just above the upper critical temperature and then quenched into a molten bath kept at a temperature in the range 250-500 degree.

    The steel is kept in the molten bath until the austenite has completely transformed to bainite, after which it is cooled to room temperature at any convenient rate.

    The mechanical properties of medium carbon steels in the austempered condition are inferior to those in the fully hardened and tempered condition. Also, austempering is a slow process and the quenching medium must be held at a constant elevated temperature

    However, there is no need tempering after the quenching, and austempering is useful in treating components of complicated sections which might distort or crack if directly hardened.

•       Martempering:

    In this process, the steel is heated to a temperature just about the upper critical point and then quenched into a molten bath kept at a temperature just above the Ms temp. The steel is kept in the molten bath only enough to allow its temp. to become uniform throughout its section.

    Hardenability:

    The ease with which steel may be quench hardened. The depth of hardening obtained by quenching a given steel bar depends on:

•       The composition of the steel.

•       The cross-sectional area.

•       The quenching medium.

•       The quenching technique.

•       The influence of cross –sectional area is referred to as the mass effect of heat treatment. The cooling rate across a section becomes slower from the outside to the centre, even with drastic quenching, because of the poor thermal conductivity of steel.

•       The quenching mediums are water solution, tap water, fused salts, soluble oil, oil and air.

    Quenching techniques:

    Hardening of tool steels falls into various categories. Some examples of tool steels requiring different quenching techniques are as follows,

•       Water hardening tool steels:

    They are covered by AS1239W grades and these are shallow hardening. These steels contain around 1% carbon and may have small additions of vanadium for grain refining and toughness

    Depth of hardening is around 3mm when quenched from the normal hardening temperature of 780 degree and will increase to around 6mm by increasing the quenching temperature to 870 degree.

 

 

•       Applications:

    These steels have many uses particularly in wood working tools.

•       Tempering:

    150-250 degree to achieve the desired hardness.

•       Oil hardening tool steel:

    An example of oil is AS1239 grade S1A-5 which is hardened from 800-840 degree by quenching into oil.

•       Applications:

    This steel is normally used for heavier section punches than the W series tool steels and possesses good dimensional stability.

•       Applications:

•       This steel is normally used for heavier section punches than the W series tool steels and possesses good dimensional stability.   

•       Heat treatment:

    Pre heating at 650-700 degree is recommended to allow the tool to equalise at a subcritical temperature prior to rising to the austenitisation temperature. The procedure helps to maintain dimensional stability.

•       Tempering:

    It is recommended in the range of 170-200 degree which will give hardness in excess of 60HRC. Tempering in the range of 250-350 degree can result in a reduction of impact strength. 

•       Air hardening tool steel:

    Examples of tool steel are grades W and D of AS1239.

•       Heat treatment:

    They require adequate preheat at 780 degree prior to austenitising and hardening is generally affected by still air cooling. Larger sections may be used to be cooled in an air blast to achieve maximum hardness.

•       Tempering:

    These steels should be tempered when cooled to a hand warm condition and multiple tempering is sometimes necessary to achieve complete transformation and maximum toughness commensurate with hardness.

•       Air hardening hot work steels of H13 type:

    These steels may be air hardened in sections up to 60mm. Above this thickness, whilst full hardening will occur, carbide precipitation at grain boundaries will lead to poor tool life and low impact strength.

•       Heat treatment:

    The preferred procedure is to quench into a fluidised bed furnace or salt bath held just above the Ms point. This allows the cooling rate to miss the critical areas of the S curve where carbide precipitation occurs.

 

HARDENABILITY TEST

    Test for hardenability using the jominy end quench test.

            This test is helpful in assessing the hardenability of steel. It involves heating a test piece of about 2.5 cm diameter and 10cm long uniformly to the proper austenitizing temp.; just above the upper critical temperature.  It is then removed from the furnace and placed on a fixture where a jet of water impinges on the bottom face of the specimen. The size of the orifice, the distance from the orifice to the bottom of the specimen, and the temperature and circulation of the water are all standardized, so that every specimen quenched in this fixture receives the same rate of cooling.

CONCLUSION

 

•       Components which are required for service are able to meet up with the design specification of the engineer due to proper heat treatment operation.

REFERENCES

        Steel metallurgy for the non-metallurgist By John D. Verhoeven - ASM International 2007 Page 99-105

        The Medieval Sword in the Modern World By Michael 'Tinker' Pearce - 2007 Page 39

        Tool steels By George Adam Roberts, George Krauss, Richard Kennedy, Richard L. Kennedy - ASM International 1998 Page 2

      Roberts-Austen By Sir William Chandler Roberts-Austen, Sydney W. Smith - Charles Griffin & Co. 1914 Page 155-156

       Correlation of Yield Strength and Tensile Strength with Hardness for Steels , E.J. Pavlina and C.J. Van Tyne, Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance, Volume 17, Number 6 / December, 2008

        Steel castings handbook By Malcolm Blair, Thomas L. Stevens - Steel Founders' Society of America and ASM International Page 24-9

 

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EFFECT OF ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATIONS ON HUMAN

ABSTRACT

The man of 21st century is a man of comfort, totally depending and cannot spend a second without technology. Various equipment such as wireless phones, electrical/electronics equipment etc. has become an integral part of his life. Large numbers of these devices generates electromagnetic radiations. Also these electromagnetic devices have various uses in domestic, industries and medicine. In spite of all these important applications the electromagnetic fields, imposes great danger to the human body.

Electromagnetic radiation is a form of energy that is produce by oscillating electric and magnetic disturbance, or by the movement of electrically charged particles travelling through vacuum of matter. When something in the environment is called a pollutant, it implies that it is somehow harmful to nature and to human beings. This paper discusses the effect of the electromagnetic pollution on the human body and also the various sources responsible for electromagnetic pollution and safety guide to EMRs. This paper throws light on the other side of the emerging technology.

                                         INTRODUCTION

Electromagnetic radiation itself is a form of energy that is produce by oscillating electric and magnetic disturbance, or by the movement of electrically charged particles travelling through vacuum of matter. Electromagnetic radiations can be classified into two types ionizing radiation and non-ionizing radiation. They are called so based on whether they are capable of ionizing atoms and breaking covalent bonds or not. Ultra violet and higher frequency radiations, such as X-rays or gamma rays are ionizing.

…INTRODUCTION CONTD.

infrared waves, visible light, ultraviolet light, x-rays and gamma rays. Wave frequency differentiates one class of radiation from another. Figure 1 is a graphical representation of the spectrum of electromagnetic energy or radiation in ascending frequency (decreasing wavelength). Electromagnetic pollution is due to frequencies which are oscillating slower than visible light waves. But x-rays and gamma rays (which oscillate faster than visible light) are highly dangerous but they are rarely present at our dwelling places and workplaces. Electromagnetic pollution is everywhere.

…INTRODUCTION CONTD.

These pose their own special effects on the life of human beings. Non-ionizing radiation is associated with two major potential hazards that are electrical and biological. Moreover, induced electric current caused by radiation can generate sparks and create a fire or explosive hazard. The electromagnetic spectrum includes several different classes of radiation: low frequency, radio waves, microwaves,

 

SOURCES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATIONS

In the last six years, researchers has made a lot of breakthroughs in understanding how electromagnetic fields affect living systems, not just humans, but all living systems. Electro-magnetic fields (EMFs) come from everything that uses electricity in our world today. Fluorescent lights the most used form of light in NEDDI or even in our homes have transformers. Another large source of EMF in our environment is motors. Electric shaver is an example. In fact, studies have shown that just a few minutes exposure to that kind of a field will affect you for more than 24 hours.

The biggest sources of electromagnetic radiation in our environment are transformers and electric motors.

…SOURCES OF EMRS CONTD

Other devices responsible for electromagnetic pollution are as follows:

•   Computers and related equipment

•   Cellular (mobile) phones

•   Information networks

•   Electrical appliances

•   Electronic equipment

•   Cell phone masts

•   Microwave ovens

•   Cables and conductors

•   High and low voltage power lines and many others.

ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATIONS (EMRs)

Low Frequency EMRs

Strong electromagnetic fields (EMFs) of low frequency about 50 to 60 cycles per second (hertz, or Hz) are very harmful. It is possible to shield a house from electric field generated by a nearby power lines but is difficult to provide shielding from magnetic field generated by them. The magnetic field can be shielded by using the underground transmission system but the cost is much higher than the overhead transmission line system. The long-term exposure of low frequency EMFs may give rise to various health problems especially fatigue, irritability, aggression, hyperactivity, sleep disorders and emotional instability.

 

Large numbers of individuals are becoming hypersensitive to EMR. EMR exists around power lines, power tools, boilers, electric stoves, heaters, freezers and television sets when in use using an electric iron or an electric keyboard or working with handheld power tools can quickly drain our energies. Stray currents and radiating fields can be present around us even if appliances are switched off. AC electric fields do not disappears when an appliance is switched off, only AC magnetic fields disappears.

High Frequency EMRs

High frequency electromagnetic field is mainly generated by the cellular phones, microwaves and antennas. High frequency EMFs is due to radio frequency energy in the frequency range of low, medium, high, very high, ultrahigh frequencies or microwaves and is often referred to as radio energy. The term radio frequency energy is used for all the frequencies between 30kHz and 300GHz. Biological effects of radio frequency (RF) energy are:

 

The RF energy heats up the tissues in a similar manner a microwave oven heats the food and it can be dangerous in case of prolong exposure.

Tissues can get damaged if exposed to RF energy because they are not capable of dissipating large amount of heat generated. This can lead to skin burns, deep burns and heat strokes.

Eyes are most affected by the RF energy because the lack of blood flow to cool the cornea can lead to cataract.

RADIO FREQUENCY RADIATIONS

•               Cellular Phones EMRs. Cellular phones work by emitting radio frequency radiations that are transmitted through the antenna in the phone. While using the cellular phone, the device and thus its antenna end up right next to the head and the radiation from it easily affect the brain.

•               Cordless Phones EMRs Swedish scientists have found that cordless phones give rise to the risk of cancer. Researchers studied malignant brain tumor patients on the basis of their usage of cell phones and cordless phones and they found that cancer risk was increased for those who used cordless phones and the user which use both have even higher risk.

 

HAZARDS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC POLLUTION

Electromagnetic pollution has various hazards like electrical hazards, fire hazards, biological hazards and DNA fragmentation.

•               Fire Hazard

Extremely high power electromagnetic radiation can cause sparks (electrical arcs). When an induced voltage exceeds the breakdown voltage of the surrounding medium (e.g. air). These sparks can then ignite flammable materials or gases, possibly leading to an explosion. This can be a particular hazard in the vicinity of explosives or pyrotechnics, since an electrical overload might ignite them.

 

This risk is commonly referred to as Hazards of Electromagnetic Radiation to Ordnance (HERO). On the other hand, the risk related to fuelling is known as Hazards of Electromagnetic Radiation to Fuel (HERF).

•               Biological Hazard

The most understood and discussed biological effect of electromagnetic fields is dielectric heating. For example, touching or standing around an antenna while a high-power transmitter is in operation can cause severe burns. These are exactly the kind of burns that would be caused inside a microwave oven. This heating effect varies with the power and the frequency of the electromagnetic energy. A measure of the heating effect

 

is the Specific Absorption Rate (SAR), which has units of watts per kilogram (W/kg). The IEEE^[5] and many national governments have established safety limits for exposure to various frequencies of electromagnetic energy based on SAR, mainly based on the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) Guidelines.

•               Electrical Hazard

Strong radiation can induce current capable of delivering an electric shock to persons or animals. It can also overload and destroy electrical equipment. The induction of currents by oscillating magnetic fields is also the way in which solar storms disrupt the operation of electrical and electronic systems,

 

causing damage to and even the explosion of power distribution transformers, blackouts and interference with electromagnetic signals (e.g. radio, TV, and telephone signals).

•               DNA Fragmentation

In 2009 the study at the University of Basel in Switzerland found that intermittent (but not continuous) exposure of human cells to a 50Hz electromagnetic field at a flux density of 1mT induced a slight but significant increase of DNA fragmentation in the Comet assay. However this level of exposure is already above current established safety exposure limits.

SAFETY GUIDELINES

There are two major sources of electromagnetic pollution and their effects are different on human body, so different protection measures are required for both low frequency and high frequency electromagnetic pollution.

Low Frequency EMP:

•             It must be tried to minimize electromagnetic pollution, especially while sleeping when the pineal gland is most susceptible.

•             Also one should sleep in the dark or at least with a dim lamp to protect the immune-stimulating hormone melatonin.

 

•             Preferably all power points in the bedroom should be switched off and all electric leads with 2-prong plugs should be unplugged before going to sleep.

•             If the head faces a wall with power-points or other electric wiring inside the wall close to the bed, then bed should be moved towards the middle of the room.

•             While using electric blankets, the bed should be warmed beforehand and the plug should be removed before going to bed.

•             It should be tried not to habitually remain within a few meters of a working electric appliance.

High Frequency EMP

•             Human beings should spend less time on the cellular phones.

•             Cellular phones with a lower specific absorption rate (SAR) should be used. Use of cell phones should be limited in case of children below 10 years.

•             It should be avoided to make calls with a low signal and low battery as the cell phone will generate more radiation in an effort to compensate for it.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, I want to say that electromagnetic fields are harmful and can have adverse effect on human body depending upon the intensity and frequency of the electromagnetic field exposed to. It is always a good idea to avoid unnecessary exposure to electromagnetic fields whenever possible. Though it is true that technology has made life very comfortable but it is at the expense of our health, it is our first duty to save our lives. Thus we should use technology wisely so that we can save ourselves as well as mother earth. Remember Health is wealth and wisdom is profitable to direct.

REFERENCES

Ø Ali Zamanian and Cy Hardiman, “Electromagnetic Radiation and Human Health: A Review of Sources and Effects”, Summit Technical Media, July 2005.

Ø Focke F, Schuermann D, Kuster N, Schar P, “DNA Fragmentation in Human Fibroblasts Under Extremely Low Frequency Electromagnetic Field Exposure”, Mutation Research 683(1-2), November 2009.

Ø Professor John E. Moulder, Ph.D., Electromagnetic Fields and Human Health.

Ø Ankur Mahajan, “Human Health and Electromagnetic Radiations”, June, 2013.

Ø "Standard for Safety Level with Respect to Human Exposure to Radio Frequency Electromagnetic Fields, 3KHz to 300GHz". IEEE STD (IEEE) C95.1. Oct 2005.

Ø International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection, “Guidelines for limiting exposure to time-varying electric, magnetic, and electromagnetic fields (up to 300 GHz)”, Health Physics 74 (4), April 1998.

Ø http://image.gsfc.nasa.gov/poetry/workbook/stroms.html.

 

Thank

You

 

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